File Sharing is Controlled or Controllable by the Law of Copyright Coursework

File Sharing is Controlled or Controllable by the Law of Copyright - Coursework Example The negative side of this picture is that the file sharing technology has destabilized the inducements of the authors, producers, manufacturers, entertainment companies, publishers, and recording firms to make and distribute new works (Harrison, 2006). The empirical studies on the impacts of the incentives for the authors and publishers reveal that the file sharing of music is responsible for the decline in the sales of the industry. However, the reduction in the sales is not solely responsible for the reduced incentives for the authors, producers and entertainment companies to come up with novel efforts (Zentner, 2006). File sharing is has also become an enigma for the markets for concerts, communication infrastructure and electronics industry, for instance the file sharing technology has caused the augmentation of the concert prices. This in turn induces the artists across the world to organize concerts and tour different destinations frequently thereby raising the overall income o f the artists (Borland, 2003). Copyright and P2P File Sharing The file sharing technology described above has such a nature that the implication of the copyright law becomes inevitable. It is worth mentioning that each digital file, text, video or audio, is fixed with the purpose of protecting intellectual property rights no matter it is present on a hard drive, DVD, CD or only present in the RAM (Hall, 2006). The files shared between the two or more users mostly come under the category of copyrighted sharing. The result of file sharing from an end user to another person is categorized as the imitation, redistribution, or a public performance. In terms of copyright law, the word ‘public performance’ refers to the representation of a work to public which is protected by copyright law. According to copyright law, every activity in P2P file sharing involves some type of reproduction, public performance or distribution, thus file sharing technology is suspicious from its be ginning (Boorstin, 2004). Copyright Law and Control over File Sharing It has been more than two centuries that many countries developed unidirectional copyright laws. The intellectual property rights of the authors, publishers, producers and inventors were strengthened over and over again. This trend led towards the increased prices of these commodities for the general public, it also discouraged the consumption of these commodities on the end user level (Varian, 2000). The unidirectional development of copyright laws across the globe widened the gap between the protection of the intellectual property rights and advancement in the technology. Keeping in view the above discussed background, the advent of file sharing has weakened the protection of the copyright laws. Although it is claimed that file sharing has disturbed several creative industries including the music industry yet the empirical studies show little evidence on the disruption of these industries due to file sharing, in stead it seems that the weakness in the copyright laws have benefited the music as well as other creative industries (Zentner, 2006). In order to understand the limitations of the copyright law to control the file sharing, it is essential to know the nuts and bolts of the file sharing. The technology has experienced revolutionary changes in the recent past and this has led the manufacturers of the file sharing software towards the most complicated legal challenges of the date. File sharing is based on computer networks which provide the facility of transfer of data. In these networks, each computer,

Hereditary fructose intolerance Essay Example for Free

Hereditary fructose intolerance Essay Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of chemical activity. Their three dimensional structure determines their function, and is made of chains of amino acids that have folded into a specific shape with a unique property. Enzymes lower the activation energy needed for a chemical reaction, therefore speeding up the process. Multiple enzymes work together in metabolic pathways, taking a product (end result) of one metabolic reaction as a substrate (substance or molecule at start of process) for another reaction. Metabolic pathways create the avenue for fructolysis, the breakdown (catabolism) of fructose, occurring in the liver, and in muscle and fat tissue. Most of fructose obtained by diet is metabolized in the liver, where the enzyme fructokinase is abundant. This enzyme phosphorylates the substrate (fructose) into fructose-1-phosphate, which is then split into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate, both three carbon molecules that can enter the glycolytic pathway for further oxidation and energy production. Enzymes are specific to a substrate, meaning they have an active spot on the enzyme that will only work with a specific shape of a particular substance (substrate). Aldolase B deficiency Aldolase B is an enzyme found predominantly in the liver that plays a major role in fructose metabolism. In hereditary fructose intolerance (HFI), individuals have a build up of fructose 1- phosphate (F1P), due to the absence or deficiency of aldolaseB, necessary to break down F1P into the two three carbon molecules utilized in the glycolytic pathway. The F1P is toxic to cells and tissues in the body, causing phosphate to become unusable, and depleting phosphate storage and energy. The decreasing phosphate levels cause glycogenolysis in the liver to halt, affecting blood sugar levels. Persons with HFI can exhibit symptoms of vomiting, trembling, nausea, lethargy, hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), and jaundice after consuming foods containing fructose. These persons must avoid fructose to avoid the build up of F1P in their body, having a deficiency in aldolase B needed to metabolize the F1P. Fructose 1-phosphate Fructose is a monosaccharide, and has the same chemical formula as glucose, but a different structure. Fructose, a simple sugar found in honey, fruits, or even table sugar, is phosphoylated in the liver by the enzyme fructokinase, or in cells by enzyme hexokinase, to form fructose 1-phospahate. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supplies the phosphate group for both reactions. Aldolase B further breaks down the product (F1P) of fructolysis, (similar to glycolosis, just with fructose, instead of glucose) into two trioses. Role of aldolase B in breakdown of fructose Aldolase B is located mainly in liver of body and ensures second part of fructose metabolism is carried out. Aldolase B breaks down fructose-1-phosphate into two trioses, glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (USNLM, 2012). Both of these three-carbon molecules are needed for further enzymatic processes in our bodies. Case 2- Mitochondrial disease Mitochondrial disease is a complex failure of mitochondrial functions. Mitochondria supply most of the energy utilized in the body, and when not functioning properly, decreased energy production cause system failure that create cell injury and cell death. The person with this affliction faces serious health concerns, as there is no cure for mitochondrial disease, only symptom management. Cori cycle The Cori cycle occurs in liver cells, cells lacking mitochondria, and is important part in anaerobic glycolysis. Pyruvate, a product of glycolysis, is converted to lactate through anaerobic respiration. Anaerobic glycolysis produces lactate from breaking down glycogen in muscles. The lactate produced in skeletal muscle by anaerobic glycolysis is transported to liver after being released into bloodstream, for conversion to glucose. Then glucose is returned to muscle in blood for energy and glycogen replenishment (King, 2012). Glucose being consumed and resynthesized at the expense of ATP and GTP hydrolysis is termed by scientists as a â€Å"futile cycle† because it takes more energy (ATP) than is produced, with a net loss of 4 ATP (Wiley, 2012). This indicates that if the conversion of lactate to glucose occurred in same cell, the energy reserves of the cell would be depleted, because the 2 ATP produced by glycolysis would be offset by the 6 ATP needed for a gluconeogenesis, to convert lactate into glucose for muscle replenishment. This continued cycle would cause an energy deficit, as the muscles glycogen stores are minimal, so the energy reserves would be depleted rapidly. Citric acid cycle During step 5 of the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), a phosphate is bonded to the succinyl complex, once containing coenzyme A. This phosphate is then transferred to a GDP molecule, to be converted into a GTP molecule. This GTP molecule will give a phosphate to ADP to make an ATP for energy. A defect in this step would prevent an increased conversion of ADP to ATP when energy needs rise. Initially, acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to make a citrate molecule. The citrate is isomerized to form isocitrate, which then is oxidized by NAD. This creates an unstable molecule that releases a CO2 molecule, creating alpha-ketoglutarate. Now, the acetyl CoA that was released in first step returns to oxidize the alpha-ketoglutarate and initiate conversion to succinyl-coenzyme A complex. A free H2O donates its hydrogen to the coenzyme A, and a free phosphate comes in to replace the coenzyme A. This newly bonded phosphate will be transferred to GDP molecule as indicated previously, for conver sion to GTP, then ADP, and finally ATP for energy. Coenzyme Q10 Coenzyme Q10 ( CoQ10) is found in cell membranes, and is critical in all cells in producing ATP (energy) for the body. CoQ10 carries electrons from enzyme complex I and II to complex III in mitochondria. This transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain (ETC) pushes hydrogen through the inner cell membrane to make a proton gradient needed by ATP synthase to make ATP (Wikipedia, 2012). CoQ10 is the lone molecule that does this task in ETC, and is vital to this function of ATP production in cells. References King, Michael W, PhD. (2012). Gluconeogenesis: Glucose synthesis. Retrieved from The Medical Biochemistry Page website: http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/gluconeogenesis.php U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2012). ALDOB. Retrieved from http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/ALDOB Wikipedia. (2012). Coenzyme Q10. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme_Q10 Wiley, John. (2012). Interactive Concepts in Biochemistry: The Cori Cycle. Retrieved from http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/cori_cycle/cori_cycle.htm

Andy Warhol Essay -- essays research papers fc

It is rare for an artist to become a celebrity, but Andy Warhol experienced much more than his â€Å"fifteen minutes of fame†, and became an icon of his generation. Andrew Warhola was born August Sixth, 1928, in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. He was the youngest son of Julie and Andrej Warhola, both immigrants from Czechoslovakia. In Fifth grade Andrew started attending the free Saturday classes that the Carnegie Institute taught. It is noted that even then young Andrew excelled at his art. Due to the bullying by his classmates he stayed inside a great deal, working on his art. Due to his aptitude in school, Andrew skipped two grades and was admitted into the Carnegie Institute of Technology at the young age of 16. Once in the school Andrew was admitted to the Department of Painting and Design. He studied various aspects of commercial graphic design. Warhol graduated from the Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1949, with a degree in pictorial design. He then went to New York City to work as a commercial illustrator. Warhol was involved in many artistic fields such as painting, filmmaking and photography. . He got his first break in August 1949, when Glamour Magazine wanted him to illustrate a feature entitled "Success is a Job in New York". But by accident the credit read "Drawings by Andy Warhol" and that's how Andy dropped the "a" in his last name. He continued doing ads and illustrations and by 1955 he was the most successful and imitated commercial ar...

Ethics: How Should I Live My Life Essay

April 15, 2011 How Should I Live? Immanual Kant vs. Jon Stuart Mill In their works â€Å"Principle of Utility† and the â€Å"Categorically Imperative† the philosophers Kant and Mill have addressed one of the most prominent questions humans have asked ourselves since the beginning of time; what are the fundamental moral principles that we should base our lives on? My intent is to show how each of these philosophers in their approach this subject yielding totally different results. I will compare and contrast and ultimately determine which of their philosophies I personally find better suited to my own way of life. I will also point out when sometimes you can have circumstances when they do not contradict each other. â€Å"Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure† Classics of Moral and Political Theory, 3rd edition p. 398). The purpose of the above passage is to define that the moral choice according to Mill. According to him when presented with a choice of actions to take, the correct and moral action is to choose the one which will produce in its consequences the greatest amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain in the world. To help understand his concept I present the following scenarios in which we would need to make a moral choice according to the above framework. Let’s suppose that while driving we are stopped at a traffic light and a couple of young kids ask you for a donation to help them make a trip to another state for their National Little League Championship. The outcome seems to depend on how much you need the money. If you were out of a job, struggling to make payments on the rent or food for example giving away your money will definitely decrease your own happiness more than it would increase the happiness of others. However if you have some disposableincome giving it away to the little league of baseball players would who need it more it would definitely increase their happiness, therefor increasing the total amount of happiness in the world as the Principle of Utility demands. Another scenario would be as follows. Imagine that you are harboring a fugitive that committed a petty crime but that you know without any doubt that he has the cure of a disease that currently kills hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. If this person gets caught by the police he would never have the chance to develop the cure. The police go to your house and ask you if you have seen the person in question. Now if you are following the Principle of Utility you have to consider the impact on the total amount of happiness each of the two possibilities, telling the police the truth or you telling them something else will bring about. If we examine what could happen if you tell the police the truth, we can see that the police’s happiness will be increased as the lack of pain from future victims of the fugitive’s crimes. But when we compare this against the happiness of the people whose lives will be saved by cure that the fugitive will be helping create we can see that in this case the greatest good will be done by telling the police that you have not seen the petty thief. In this case the long term effect of the decision helps make it a clear choice according to Mills. Long term consequences are also evident in the third scenario. In this scenario you find yourself witness of a horrible crime being committed, let’s say a rape. At first considering the demands of the Principle of Utility the choices are a little difficult to discern for if you choose to end the life of the rapist you are denying him much pleasure of the long term and causing him a lot of pain in the short term. Not doing so will also bring overall loss of pleasure by the victim and increase of pain would occur. Nevertheless if we consider the consequences of not only the short term but also the long term the death of the rapist would most likely spare many in the future from pain and trauma and preserving their opportunity for pleasure, and thus the Principle of Utility would demand that you take the rapist’s life to spare the lives of his victim and his other future ones as well. Let’s continue now to examine Kant’s Categorical Imperative. The first formulation of which is something that reminds me somewhat to the Golden Rule, â€Å"Do Unto Others as You Would Have Others Do Unto You. † (except the Golden Rule does not make for example a duty to be benevolent to others) â€Å"Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it would become a universal law. † (p. 851) Kant explains this by a series of example one of which goes something like this. If I run out of money I might be tempted to borrow some, even though I know I would be unable to repay it. I am acting on the maxim â€Å"Whenever I believe myself short of money, I will borrow money and promise to pay it back although I know that this will never be done† I cannot will that everyone should act on this maxim because if everyone asked for money but then would never pay it back nobody would believe the promise of the borrowers. A promise would lose its meaning. Therefore we could not borrow money under this circumstance as doing it would violate the categorical imperative Kant defines perfect duty as those which must be fulfilled under any circumstances and dictate a specific course of action; he defines imperfect duties as those which are more subject to circumstances and allow a certain degree of freedom in deciding how to comply with it. I see the difference between these duties as the one where are required by a society to function and those required by a society to be good and civil. Some actions are so constituted that their maxims cannot without contradiction even be thought as a universal law of nature, much less willed as what should become one. In the case of others this internal impossibility is indeed not found, but there is still no possibility of willing that their maxim should be raised to the universality of a law of nature because such a will would contradict itself. † He is trying to say that if it would be against o ne’s own interest for everyone to act on a particular maxim one cannot will the maxim to be universal as to make it universal it would go against one’s own interest. Let’s revisit the examples I gave earlier to see how our behavior would change if we let our actions be dictated by the Categorical Imperative. In the first scenario, whether to donate to the little league baseball team, it would seem that the fate of the team would be to never be able to travel as (assuming most of their finances come from donations) if people were never to donate to them any money, but none of that would prevent anyone who does have money from not donating to this club. This seems to indicate that donating to the little league baseball club is not a perfect duty. However it would be against one’s own interest for the whole world to be so stingy towards all little league baseball clubs or any other amateur sports clubs for that matter, so one could not will that to be the case and so donating to this club would be an imperfect duty. In the second scenario, whether to lie to the police about the hidden fugitive, following Kant’s Categorical Imperative is that one has a perfect duty to never lie, even in such situation. Let’s analyze that. According to Kant if everyone were to lie in an attempt to achieve some desirable result, even one as benefitting as saving hundreds of thousands of lives, the meaning of language would cease to be as people would start lying for anything they can think would be for the greater good at the end. The maxim in that case would be that you could lie as long as it was to save someone’s life (in this case the large number of sick people that would have been cured). If that maxim would become universal then we could no longer tell if anyone was telling the truth. Everyone would become untrustworthy communication between people would cease and therefore we would be unable to lie; in this case the categorical Imperative demands that we refrain from lying, even if doing so prevents from bringing about undesirable results. At the same time this still does not required us to always tell the truth; we can simply refrain from saying anything if telling the truth would violate another imperfect duty, and in my example it most definitely would since not speaking in this case (even though it may raise suspicion from the police) would be curing people of a disease all over the world a most noble imperfect duty. We can also apply the same line of reasoning to my third scenario, whether to kill a criminal to stop him from committing a horrible crime, in this case a rape. To allow killing to achieve a greater good would result in much killing all around, possibly resulting in oneself getting killed in the process and thus making impossibly for one to act at all. It seems that no one could will such anarchy to take place. Wecould modify the maxim here to say that killing is allowed if only to prevent another death, but what we are talking about ere is about the preservation of life, and as with the case of lying to the police, many people could by such a maxim feel themselves justified in killing others to achieve other ends that have nothing to do with stopping a crime. This would result in the anarchy described above so we cannot make it according to Kant a perfect duty but instead at least an imperfect one to not kill even when faced with the opportunity of preventing a crime. Kant’s second formulation of the Categorical Imperative is: Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end. † (p. 855). Here Kant states that if a maxim diminishes the freedom of choice of others, which he proclaims is one of the unconditional values of humanity, as a means to obtain other goods then that makes it an immoral maxim violating the definition of perfect duty. Anyone who uses deceptive or coercive methods to undermine the freedom of choice and action exercised by others also violates perfect duty. Looking at the first scenario again, whether to donate to the baseball club. If nobody donated any money it would not mean that you are using other people as a means to an end, you would be just ignoring them not using them at all, so donating is not a prefect duty as the failure of not doing so does not involve misusing other people. However refusing to donate to the little league is a failure to account for other people as ends themselves. People need to have means in order to exercise their will, so limited means makes it much harder for people to exercise their free will. Therefore if not donating would deprive them of resources, it would be a failure to account for the club’s members ability to freely act as an end of one’s own actions and so it makes it an imperfect duty to donate money to the little league baseball club. In the second scenario whether to lie to the police about the location of the fugitive, resource here is information. For an individual to act freely, he must have accurate information which means that if you lie to someone you are giving them information that is not valid thus not only depriving them of the resource they need to act freely but you are taking away the power they have to exercise their will. In this scenario lying to the police even with such good motive as getting a cure to a disease that will save hundreds and thousands of lives is to treat the police as a means to an end disregarding the right to exercise their free will. This make in this example a a perfect duty not to lie. However we can also see how there would be an imperfect duty not to tell the police where the fugitive is, for doing so would be a failure to take into account the fugitive as an end in themselves, getting caught and sent to jail would impede his ability to exercise his free will so according to Kant the correct choice in this case would be to refuse to talk to the police even when this would bring about suspicion and possibly further actions from the police. If we apply the second formulation of the Categorical Imperative to the third example it seems clear that killing another person, even a rapist, would certainly limit his ability to exercise their own will, so the Kant’s second formulation would require as a perfect duty not to kill the criminal even to save another person from being raped. So as we can see when we apply the principles from Kent and Mills we find ourselves following different path of actions. In my first example donating to the Little League Baseball Club both Kent and Mills proclaim that donating is the correct choice to make. But when analyzing the second and third example their philosophies start to disagree as what is the right thing to do. The Categorical Imperative is more rigid insisting that we must not lie to the police and we must not kill the rapist as it is a perfect duty in all cases. The Principle of Utility in contrast allows more room to apply our rational to consider the consequences. It allows certain actions such as lying and killing if it is for the greater good. What is the correct moral framework on which we should base our lives on? Even though I find aspects of each these systems commendable I believe that neither system has been perfectly created. The Principles of Utility relies heavily on the consequences of one’s actions to flag a course of action as correct or incorrect. Only by looking our action and their consequences in retrospect we can truly determine if the course of action taken was the correct one. If we had the luxury of foreseeing all consequences then it would be a perfect system but since we always have to make decisions without knowing the ramifications of our actions and most times we only have partial information it does not seem that one should base one’s life solely on the principles that Mills dictates. What is needed is a set of rules we can use to adapt our actions to that will always produce the biggest benefit or the least amount of harm in the long run even if in the short term produces consequences that are not as good as other course of action. The Categorical Imperative at first seems to be a good standard for behavior but at the end of my analysis I do not feel comfortable with the absolute rules where by following them we can find ourselves in a scenario where one cannot even lie to save a life let alone kill to prevent it. It just seems too open for abuse with great benefits by those who did not obeyed the laws akin to what I think would happen if our right to carry arms was taken away so law abiding citizens would not possess any arms but the criminals would, putting the rest of us in a very precarious situation unable to defend ourselves. At the end I align myself a little more with Mills, I would like to think that if I ever in the situation of the last example I gave I would have enough courage to try stop a rape from happening and any action up to an including killing the rapist would be defensible in court, of course I would prefer to be able to stop it from happening without to resorting to such extreme measures. If the basis of a free society is the right to liberty and property then our duty should be not just to not impede others to have it but to also defend others when their rights to either are being taken away. I have a have a personal duty to defend those in danger and to give those in need and even if not everyone adheres to thesemoral guidelines we will all be as a society better off as the general happiness will certainly reach a higher level.

Overview of the Research Process for Business Students

What is Research? People undertake research in order to find things out in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge (Jankowicz, 1995). â€Å"Systematic† suggests that research is based on logical relationships and not just beliefs (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2010). To â€Å"find things out† suggests there are a multiplicity of possible purposes for your research (Becker, 1998). It is therefore an activity which has to be finished at some point to be of use.The results of research really are all around us in everyday life. Politicians often justify their policy decisions on the basis of research; Newspapers report the findings of research companies. Documentary programmes tell us about research findings and advertisers may highlight the results of research to encourage consumers to buy a particular product or brand. The most difficult hurdle to overcome in doing research is not in learning the techniques or doing the actual work or even writing the report.The bigge st obstacle, surprisingly, lies in figuring out what you want to know. Two problems are very common: choosing a topic which is too broad†¦ or â€Å"dressing up† a topic (Kane, 1987) Formulating and clarifying the research topic is the starting point of research (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2010; Smith and Dainty 1991). Most research originates from a general problem. Usually, the problem is broad enough that it could not be addressed in a single research study.Consequently, the problem is narrowed into a more specific research question. A well-constructed research question is one described by Maylor and Blackmon (2005, p. 54) which â€Å"identifies the scope of the research and guides the plan of the project†. The research question is the central issue being addressed in the study and from this research objectives can be set. The table below sets out criteria to help devise useful research objectives. Criterion| Purpose|Transparency| The meaning of the research objective is clear and unambiguous| Specificity| The purpose of the research objective is clear and easily understood, as are the actions required to fulfil it| Relevancy| The research objective’s link to the research question and wider research project is clear| Interconnectivity| Taken together as a set, the research objectives illustrate the steps in the research process from its start to its conclusion, without leaving any gaps. In this way the research objectives form a coherent whole| Answerability| The intended outcome of the research objective is achievable.Where this relates to data, the nature of the data required will be clear or at least implied| Measurability| The intended product of the research objective will be evident when it has been achieved| Saunders (2012) Research Methods for Business Students, Table 2. 3 p. 44 Literature Review A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge on a particular topic. Its ultimate g oal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature and forms the basis for another goal, such as justification for future research the area. Knowledge does not exist in a vacuum, and your work only has value in relation to other peoples† (Jankowicz, 2005). It seeks to describe, summarise, evaluate, and clarify/integrate the content of previous researches and assists in limiting the scope of inquiry while conveying the importance of studying a topic to readers. Literature sources available include Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Primary data is original data that has been collected from the original source with a purpose in mind.Secondary sources are the subsequent publication of primary literature and tertiary sources (search tools) are designed to either help locate primary and secondary literature or to introduce a topic. Tertiary Indexes Databases Catalogues Encyclopaedias Dictionaries Bibliographies Citation Indexes Secondary Journals Books Newspapers Governmen t Publications Primary Reports Theses Emails Company Reports Unpublished Manuscripts Some Government Publications Increasing time to publish Increasing level of detail Saunders (2012) Research Methods for Business Students Table 3. 3, p82 Primary versus Secondary ResearchPrimary data has not been published and so is more reliable, authentic and objective. It has not been changed or altered by human beings therefore its validity is greater than secondary data however it is important to remember it can only be considered as reliable as the people who gathered it. Gathering data in this way is time consuming, and incurs a high cost. More resources tend to be required and it can result in inaccurate feedback. Secondary data is less valid but it is readily available and can be reused. It is cheaper and quicker to obtain in comparison to primary data.In some circumstances primary data does not exist and so one has to confine the research of secondary data. The Research Process Research is not neutral, but reflects a range of the researcher’s personal interests, values, abilities, assumptions aims and ambitions. â€Å"The research philosophy depends on the way you think about the development of knowledge† (Saunders et al. 2000, p. 84) Collis and Hussey (2003, p. 52) highlight two main research philosophies and detail that there can be overlap between the two and both positions may be identifiable in any research project. They are the positivistic and phenomenological.Positivistic approaches are founded on the belief that the study of human behaviour should be conducted in the same way as studies conducted in the natural sciences. Therefore seeking to identify measure and evaluate any phenomena and to provide a rational explanation for it. This approach attempts to establish casual links and relationships between the different elements (or variables) of the subject and relate them to a particular theory or practice. Phenomenological approaches however, a pproach research from the perspective of understanding behaviour from the participants’ own subjective frames of reference.Research methods are chosen, therefore, to try and describe, translate and explain and interpret events from the perspectives of the people who are the subject of the research. The following diagram describes the research process â€Å"onion† that supports the researcher to â€Å"depict the issues underlying the choice of data collection methods† (Saunders, 2012 Research Methods for Business Students, Fig 4. 1, p. 128) The layers of research represent the following aspects: * Research philosophy; * Research approach; * Research strategy/methodology; * Time horizons; and * Data collection methods Research Approach – Deductive or Inductive? It is the theory that decides what can be observed† Albert Einstein Bryan & Bell (2007) state that the researcher will either use: 1) deductive in which a theory and hypothesis is developed and a strategy is designed to test the hypothesis, or 2) inductive approach will be used in which the data is collected and as the result of data analysis theory and hypothesis are developed. However, Mason (2001, p. 181) supports the use of more than one research approach, â€Å"it is worth pointing out that most research strategies (approaches) in practice probably draw on a combination of these (inductive or deductive) approaches†.What is the difference between method and methodology? A method is a technique used for gathering evidence or the various ways in which proceeding in gathering information. Methodology is the underlying theory of how research does or should proceed, often influenced by discipline. Research Strategy The research strategy is of paramount important in setting the parameters and creating the credibility of any study. According to Collis and Hussey (2003, p. 55) research methodology refers to the overall approaches and perspectives to the research proces s as a whole and is concerned with the following main issues: Why you collected certain data; * What data you collected; * Where you collected it; * How you collected it; * How you analysed it The choice of research strategy is dependent on the research questions and objectives, the extent of existing knowledge, the amount of time and resources available and the philosophical foundations (Saunders et al. 2007). There are various research strategies proposed by different authors including experiment, survey, case study, action research, grounded theory and ethnography. Experiment is a classical form of research which allows studying the effect of change, an independent variable can bring in another dependent variable (Hakim, 2000) * Survey is a methodology which is usually associated with the deductive approach and is mostly used in the situations where there is a need to collect the data from a large population in an economical manner (Saunder et al, 2007) * Case Study is defined as a â€Å"strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence† (Robson, 2000: 178) * Action Research is focused on finding a way to bring about a change in a controlled environment * Grounded theory is often thought of as the best example of inductive approach as the hypothesis is developed from the data generated by a series of observations (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) * Ethnography is a research strategy which focuses on acquiring the social knowledge in order to understand the observed patterns of human activity (Hussey & Hussey, 1997) Ethical Issues Ethical concerns may emerge at all stages of research. Saunders et al. (2007, p. 31) summarise the main issues to consider, although ethical issues surrounding these items are not always clear: * The rights of privacy of individuals * Voluntary nature of participation – and the rights of individuals to wi thdraw partially or completely from the process * Consent and possible deception of participants (Appendix ? ) * Maintenance of confidentiality of data provided by individuals or identifiable participants and their anonymity * Reactions of participants to the ways which researchers seek to collect data * Effects on participants of the way data is analysed and reported * Behaviour and objectivity of the researcher Reliability and Validity

Free Essays on Who Won The Cold War

The Cold War is something that everyone has heard about yet most of us have no clue what the war was really about or why it was started or for that fact who even won the war. The Cold War involved just about the whole world but mainly the United States and Russia. After reading LeFaber, listening to lectures, and doing some research I have come to the conclusion that there was no winner nor a loser of the Cold War. The Cold War for Russia, was to ensure security, block out capitalism, gain power and improve their economy. While on the other hand the United States just wanted to stop the spread of communism which they thought would affect the world like a domino if they did not put an end to it soon. Both Russia and the United States wanted to avoid World War III in the process of tying to achieve their goals. Many other countries were also involved in the war such as China and Vietnam, among many others. In 1949, Mao Zedong and the People's Liberation Army lead the Communists to victory in a civil war against Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists. Losing China to the communists was a devastating blow to the United States. China was faced with the need for military and economic aid which it eventually received from Russia. In 1958, Mao began the Great Leap Forward. Thirty million Chinese starved to death during the Great Leap Forward, making it one of the worst man-made disasters in history. In 1964, China explodes its first nuclear bomb. In 1965, American forces enter Vietnam and the Chinese support North Vietnam while the United States take the South’s side. Mao, in the end wants to restore peace with the United States and current President Richard Nixon. The United States was unsuccessful in stopping the spread of communism throughout China, while the Soviet Union was gaining power. Stalin became concerned about the Soviet Union’s security and requested reparations. Americans believed that Germany must get back ... Free Essays on Who Won The Cold War Free Essays on Who Won The Cold War The Cold War is something that everyone has heard about yet most of us have no clue what the war was really about or why it was started or for that fact who even won the war. The Cold War involved just about the whole world but mainly the United States and Russia. After reading LeFaber, listening to lectures, and doing some research I have come to the conclusion that there was no winner nor a loser of the Cold War. The Cold War for Russia, was to ensure security, block out capitalism, gain power and improve their economy. While on the other hand the United States just wanted to stop the spread of communism which they thought would affect the world like a domino if they did not put an end to it soon. Both Russia and the United States wanted to avoid World War III in the process of tying to achieve their goals. Many other countries were also involved in the war such as China and Vietnam, among many others. In 1949, Mao Zedong and the People's Liberation Army lead the Communists to victory in a civil war against Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists. Losing China to the communists was a devastating blow to the United States. China was faced with the need for military and economic aid which it eventually received from Russia. In 1958, Mao began the Great Leap Forward. Thirty million Chinese starved to death during the Great Leap Forward, making it one of the worst man-made disasters in history. In 1964, China explodes its first nuclear bomb. In 1965, American forces enter Vietnam and the Chinese support North Vietnam while the United States take the South’s side. Mao, in the end wants to restore peace with the United States and current President Richard Nixon. The United States was unsuccessful in stopping the spread of communism throughout China, while the Soviet Union was gaining power. Stalin became concerned about the Soviet Union’s security and requested reparations. Americans believed that Germany must get back ...

Valuation In Accounting Research

Valuation In Accounting Research Free Online Research Papers Introduction This topic focuses on share and firm valuation because when we talk about firm valuation, the most important element is the determination of a share’s price. Valuation is closely linked to capital budgeting, risk, returns and the cost of capital because a return model is a transformation of the valuation model, and the discount rate used in valuation and capital budgeting is either a part or wholly the cost of capital. Contents ? Valuation of critical: Maximise the firm’s value/ordinary shares Estimating the cost of capita ? Three models: Dividend Growth Valuation Models Link to value shares Theorises that Dividend payments constitutes value- Dividend may be increased or decreased depending on earnings Represents equity or ownership Includes voting rights Priority: lower than debt and preferred We can simplify the pattern for dividend payment as follows: The dividend has a zero growth rate, and r is also known as the market capitalisation rate (MCR) or the hurdle rate because the investor expects his â€Å"true† rate to be higher than the market rate or the hurdle rate. r is also called the holding period return, the HPR assumes that investors in securities would expect to get some of cash dividends and capital gains from the eventual sale of the shares. Dividends-Discounting Model (DDM) Where :?= sum of the series E [Dt] = Expected dividends in period t This formula is equivalent to valuing the market value of the firm’s equity at the present value since buying stocks is in fact buying a part of a firm Since future cash flows are constant, the value of a zero growth stock is the present value of perpetuity: zero growth CDVM Where: D= Constant dividend r= Required rate of return This formula is useful for investors who want to know the historical rate of return for a company’s stock, and also when the investor wished to determine the expected required rate of return for the future value of a firm’s stock The dividend growths as a constant rate Since future cash flows grow at a constant rate forever, the value of a constant growth stock is the present value of growing perpetuity: However, discounting the above successively depends on r and g: ? if r=g, the share would be infinite ? if rg, the dividends would grow The DDM models and rate of return it can changeable Free-Cash Flow Valuation models Link to value firm FCF is defined as the cash flow left over after deducting the costs of operations (purchases and expenses) and new investments from revenues (sales) FCF= Net Income (NI) + Depreciation-Cost-Investment Where: Vo =Value of firm at time t FCFt = CFOt Invt or FCFt = Nit + Dept ?WC Invt Since FCF measures the cash flow from the entire firm and hence enterprise cash flow or entity cash flow is more appropriate, which is based on the comprehensive basis, the discount rate used in the FCF context must be the cost of capital for the entire firm, which is the weighted average cost of capital. Since FCF is firm level, the growth rate relates to the cash flows of the entire firm. Growth rate (g) = Plough back ratio x ROA = k where ROA=return on asset Residual Income Valuation Models Link to value shares The alterative to the dividend-discounting model is the residual earnings or abnormal earnings valuation models. This model no need to use dividends or cash, it based on value add book value of equity as fundamental value and forecasts if residual earnings. The Ohlson (1995) model is concerned with a single firm’s market value as it relates to contemporaneous accounting information –future earnings, book values and dividends, and other relevant information. The valuation model is set on an efficient market with risk neutrality (risk free), no arbitrage, no information asymmetry, non-stochastic interest rates and a constant term structure. This equation is formulated by substituting RI for dividend into the DDM (equation Po = Div/r) the RIVM is restatement of the DDM. Though using the RIVM, we can value the firm’s equity using fundamental accounting data and there is no need to use DDM to value equity. Thus the only relevance of the DDM is just to provide theoretical support for using the RIVM Similar to the DDM and FCF models, the RIVM of equation can also be expressed in terms of constant growth model ? The advantage of the RIVM is that it emphasizes the important of fundamental economic performance to equity valuation in particular: The difference between ROE or and the cost of equity capital r The expected rate of growth in the book value of equity RIVM can help explain prices better than the DDM or FCF for two reasons: ? By definition, any increase in RI implies value creation ? By comparing the value of the firm and MWE, we can determine whether the share price is over valued or under value Conclusion ? Advantages of DDM (1) Very intuitive-it is easy to understand the DDM in that dividends are cash flows paid directly to shareholders. (2) The model is parsimonious. (3) Operationalization of the DDM is straightforward and easy to apply. ? Disadvantages (1) Obviously, the DDM only works for firms which pay dividends. (2) The DDM does not explicitly account for risk. (3) We need to make an estimate of the firm’s growth rate, g, but this can be difficult to do in practice. (4) As seen in point (2) above, we are not able to explicitly account for risk. (5) Estimates of the shares’ value are very sensitive to our estimates of g and r. (6) The DDM only works for firms which pay dividends. The dividends and residual income approach attempts to maximize shareholders’ wealth while the FCF approach attempts to maximize the wealth of the enterprise. Research Papers on Valuation In Accounting ResearchIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalDefinition of Export QuotasCapital PunishmentRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanThe Project Managment Office SystemAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesPETSTEL analysis of IndiaOpen Architechture a white paperPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy

Suggested Attire for an Immigration Interview

Suggested Attire for an Immigration Interview It is rare to find a person who is not the least bit nervous about an immigration interview. This is the face-to-face meeting with an immigration officer who will evaluate an applicants credibility and eligibility for entrance into the United States for as long or as short a stay as is requested. As with any meeting, first impressions do matter. A persons presentation, demeanor, and appearance play into that impression. Does Appearance Matter Officially? Officially, what you wear should have no bearing on the interviewing officers adjudication of your case. When conducting an interview, immigration officers must be nonjudgmental and nonmoralistic, setting aside any personal biases. Even if the immigration officer feels personally offended by your attire, he or she must put personal feelings aside and not allow them to have any bearing on the final determinations. That said, remaining completely neutral is very difficult. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) immigration officers are trained to avoid letting their personal judgments affect a case, but interviewees can ease the process by dressing in a professional, respectful manner. Suggested Attire A good rule of thumb is to dress as if you were going to a job interview for an office job or meeting your partners family for the first time. In other words, wear something clean, comfortable, moderately conservative, and presentable that makes a good impression. Clothing does not have to be expensive, but it should be clean and pressed. Polishing shoes so they shine brilliantly is not necessary, but do give them a quick wipe if they need it. Attire can include clothing that is business casual, such as a clean, pressed outfit- a less formal version of classic business attire. If an applicant feels comfortable wearing a suit, then that would be a good choice. If the applicant feels a suit would be uncomfortable, then a pair of pants, a nice shirt, a skirt, or a dress is suitable as well. What Not to Wear Do not wear anything that might be considered offensive or controversial. This includes political slogans or pictures. Use perfume or cologne sparingly. Some people have allergies and sensitivities to scents. Since waiting rooms have a tendency to get cramped at times, competing scents may overwhelm the room and bother an interviewer. Other suggestions of what not to wear include gym clothes, such as sweatpants, tank tops, or shorts. Use your own discretion with makeup and hairstyles; choosing a look that is not too distracting for the interviewer would be best. Attire for the Naturalization Ceremony Taking the oath to become a U.S. citizen is an important ceremony. People will be bringing guests, and some ceremonies may have famous people, such as dignitaries or other newsmakers, in attendance, so at least business casual is recommended. Expect that lots of pictures will be taken, too. According to the USCIS Guide to Naturalization web page for the naturalization ceremony, The naturalization ceremony is a solemn and meaningful event. USCIS asks that you dress in proper attire to respect the dignity of this event.

Criminology journal article critical evaluation Essay

Criminology journal article critical evaluation - Essay Example Therefore, qualitative analysis will allow any researcher to document and bring out relationships between the research question and data sources , develop patterns and trends, themes and categories, which best helps a researcher to understand the data and make meanings from the trends established. This makes qualitative analysis through surveys the best research approach to employ in any social phenomena. Yang & Wayckoff (2010) in their research Perceptions of safety and victimization: does survey construction affect perceptions? Clearly indicate the appropriateness of a survey in establishing trends, themes, and relationships between collected data sets and the subjects to better understand a social issue. The research seeks to establish whether question order in surveys involving victimization have any effect on the answers provided by respondents, in establishing the respondent’s characteristics, and question order effects in understanding the best way to arrange questions in a survey involving victims of criminology. This study aims at establishing social relationships between crime victims and survey questions to measure how such victims would respond to questions related to victimization; this implies the research question just like any other social research questions aims at establishing patterns and trends to make a hypothesis regarding the behavior of such victims in answering survey questions. As Livesey (2006) explains, such a study would apply a positivists approach in methodology which makes it possible to establish social behavioral patterns. Therefore, the survey methodology as used in this research is appropriate and ideal in bringing out behaviors of such crime victims in a survey. The main motivation in justifying the use of surveys in qualitative research in the study above is that such an approach will enable the researchers to develop various explanations of both social and cultural phenomena as would be observed from the data set co llected (Zakaria, 2004). Such a survey would lead to a naturalistic way of exploring the data in a qualitative –descriptive approach, an approach which is ideal in understanding and interpreting data collected and observed in the best objective way possible (DeLyser, 2008). Through such research methodology, the aims of the research which are investigating the effects of question ordering in surveys for crime victims will be effectively realized. Wilmot (2009) explains that in qualitative research, the use of non-probability approach is critical and a researcher has to have a complete sample with no statistical representative. Therefore, the best approach in such a survey would be to use purposive sampling. The characteristic of individuals have to be reflected in the selection process to reflect both diversity and breadth of any sample population. Consequently, the researchers settled on carrying out the research in a university due to the high prevalence of victimization in universities, high rates of campus crimes, and growing concerns as a result of the high crime rates among parents (Jenning et al, 2007). Though such a sample could be considered to limit the generalization of such findings, the researchers explained that the university in which the research was carried out comprises of diverse student population with a random sample of student populatio

Investigative summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Investigative summary - Essay Example In many organizations, the development level of subordinates is taken quite seriously and is considered to be an indicator of need for guidance. Depending on this, the leader may carry out a diverse set of roles including providing coaching, supporting, and so on. The leadership of any organization has a great impact on not only his followers but also in the way the whole organization functions. The change is visible in the whole organization and indeed leaders play a huge role in the transition. According to the theory of situational leadership, the organizational context is quite important because it provides the drivers for the implementation of a specific leadership style. There are many other factors relating to leadership that impact the organization. This is the management structure, hierarchy and the level of power possessed by each top manager. In an earlier paper, Hersey, Blanchard, and Natemeyer (1979) have highlighted this relationship between power and leadership by relating to the different leadership styles, and situational leadership. Generally, leadership is a significant factor contributing towards organizational success through greater employee motivation and productivity. Situational leadership model is based on the premise that leadership is subject to the situation in which case the approach is molded so as to address the situation at hand. Leadership also affects employee motivation. Present organizations look to enhance employee motivation because it directly affects organizational performance and success. This is a key concept in human resource management. The current trend in the business environment is very competitive which means that organizations have to work hard in order to motivate its employees and retain talented employees. This is why employees introduce compensation programs so as to keep their employees satisfied and motivated about the job. At the same time, organizations also focus on

Byron Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Byron - Essay Example 94 He closely examined the nature of leaves and flowers (that is nature)/And he would try to find meaning in the wind; and then/He fantasized about wood nymphs and tree spirits,/And the nature of man and woman (goddesses coming down to man)/By doing this he lost all track of time/ And then she thought of how old Don Alfonso was (fifty years!):/I wish he hadn't been so old, /Because that age isn't very appealing,/The appeal of such an age,/Doesn't work with love, despite the money she could gain. 113 It became dark and the yellow moon rose:/This moon represented the evil of their desires;/People who considered who chaste were wrong,/Of this particular label, there isn't a day,/Not even the longest day, not even the twenty-first of June,/Can contain the amount of wickedness/That only three hours of moonlit seduction-/However she appears so innocent (it is a lie)! 114 At that hour of night the silence is dangerous for morality,/The stillness allows for inner desires /To be released, without any power,/That can call someone back to control themselves;/The silver light gave the background a certain holiness,/It gives the landscape a certain beauty and softness,/This

Coco Fusco Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Coco Fusco - Essay Example An established research literature finds that there are substantial labor market payoffs for foreign workers who speak English; yet, there is no research on the payoff for workers with abilities in English and another language. Even if English remains the dominant language of the U.S. populace, there are good a priori reasons to expect multiple language skills to provide an earnings advantage for workers and a competitive advantage for employers who hire those workers. In an increasingly global economy, multinational corporations and import/export businesses need those rare workers--about 7% of the U.S. work force, by Coco's estimate--who can speak both English and another language. Decades of growing immigration have created diverse communities of non-native-English-speakers across the country, from Spanish speakers throughout the Southwest to Vietnamese in enclaves of major West and East coast cities. Workers often need to speak languages other than English in supervisory and middl eman/professional service-provider occupations. Moreover, research finds that bilinguals tend to perform better in school, suggesting that bilingualism improves academic ability and, probably, productivity. At least one analyst, however, has cast doubt on the supposition that bilingualism confers an earnings advantage.

Balfour Beatty and Corporate Social Responsibility Dissertation

Balfour Beatty and Corporate Social Responsibility - Dissertation Example The concept of corporate social responsibility is not something new (Hemingway 2002). In fact, as early as 1930’s the idea that firms should be responsible not only to its shareholders, but to society as a whole was already espoused (Hemingway 2002). However, it is only in the last forty years that discussions pertinent to CSR have become fervent. In the ensuing intensive elucidations pertinent to CSR, various concerns related to its definition, process, implications, field and many other issues have been raised (e.g. Carroll 1999; Friedman 1962; Porter & Kramer 2006). The demand for a positive response for CSR is asked of all companies regardless of the sector and size. Looking at the construction industry, its activities are highly prominent in communities where they are operating. The typical construction activities such as mineral extraction, construction, maintenance and demolition cause serious inconvenience, disruption to the general public and natural environment (Bart horpe, James & Taylor 2004). This situation if handled improperly can result in the ire of the community. On the other hand, accepting the high visibility and impact of the activities of the construction industry may become an opportunity for the company to build a positive relationship with the stakeholders in the public arena where they are conducting their affairs (Barthorpe et al. 2004). In this regard, this research will look into the practice of corporate social responsibility vis-a-vis Balfour Beatty, one of the largest construction companies not only in the UK, but also in the world. It asserts that upon observing the CSR response of Balfour Beatty, it can be attested that corporate citizenship is not a linear progression, but that it is possible for a company to be at various stages in different elements of CSR at the same time. Likewise, regardless of the intent of the company in adopting CSR, (this is significant to note because it is one of the arguments against CSR, e.g . Lin-Hi 2010), companions continue to respond to it in a positive way even if they get involved in some ‘unscrupulous activities’. This is significant as it serves as a lesson not only for the company involved, but also for all organisations. The project has the following structure. The first section is the introduction, which contains the focus and structure of the study. The second section of the project will deal with Balfour Beatty and how effective is it in aligning its goals and conduct with CSR. For the analysis, Mirvins and Googins’ Stages of Corporate Citizenship will be used. Meanwhile, the third section of the project will address a more in-depth look in some of the elements and stages of Mirvins and Googins’ Stages of Corporate Citizenship vis-a-vis Balfour Beatty Plc. Finally, the fourth part will be the limitations and conclusion of the study. In the end, it is the intention of the study to gain a better understanding of CSR by looking into the CSR of Balfour Beatty Plc. CSR and Balfour Beatty: A Demonstration of Corporate Citizenship Balfour Beatty PLC is a British construction, engineering,

Music in the marketplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Music in the marketplace - Essay Example The place smelt fresh with flower scents all over the environment setup. Drinks were served to the couples as it seemed as though the event was sought of a festival. There was no other sound audible in the environment and the space was sufficient to ease movement or a dance. The music in this setting is important in defining the space and aids in crafting the identity for the brand. The music made me feel refreshed, and the other members of the audience felt relaxed, especially due to the smell of the environment and the smooth romantic music. The other club visited a few miles away had a direct contrast with the place where romantic songs were being played. The second club played rock music with a big number of people in attendance. The place was stuffy, and no one seemed to enjoy the serenity of the environment. On the other hand, there was an audible sound coming from a construction site a factor that affected the music. Essentially, the club had limited space due huge number of people. Though the rest of the audience mostly seemed to enjoy the moment and the music, I did

Balfour Beatty and Corporate Social Responsibility Dissertation

Balfour Beatty and Corporate Social Responsibility - Dissertation Example The concept of corporate social responsibility is not something new (Hemingway 2002). In fact, as early as 1930’s the idea that firms should be responsible not only to its shareholders, but to society as a whole was already espoused (Hemingway 2002). However, it is only in the last forty years that discussions pertinent to CSR have become fervent. In the ensuing intensive elucidations pertinent to CSR, various concerns related to its definition, process, implications, field and many other issues have been raised (e.g. Carroll 1999; Friedman 1962; Porter & Kramer 2006). The demand for a positive response for CSR is asked of all companies regardless of the sector and size. Looking at the construction industry, its activities are highly prominent in communities where they are operating. The typical construction activities such as mineral extraction, construction, maintenance and demolition cause serious inconvenience, disruption to the general public and natural environment (Bart horpe, James & Taylor 2004). This situation if handled improperly can result in the ire of the community. On the other hand, accepting the high visibility and impact of the activities of the construction industry may become an opportunity for the company to build a positive relationship with the stakeholders in the public arena where they are conducting their affairs (Barthorpe et al. 2004). In this regard, this research will look into the practice of corporate social responsibility vis-a-vis Balfour Beatty, one of the largest construction companies not only in the UK, but also in the world. It asserts that upon observing the CSR response of Balfour Beatty, it can be attested that corporate citizenship is not a linear progression, but that it is possible for a company to be at various stages in different elements of CSR at the same time. Likewise, regardless of the intent of the company in adopting CSR, (this is significant to note because it is one of the arguments against CSR, e.g . Lin-Hi 2010), companions continue to respond to it in a positive way even if they get involved in some ‘unscrupulous activities’. This is significant as it serves as a lesson not only for the company involved, but also for all organisations. The project has the following structure. The first section is the introduction, which contains the focus and structure of the study. The second section of the project will deal with Balfour Beatty and how effective is it in aligning its goals and conduct with CSR. For the analysis, Mirvins and Googins’ Stages of Corporate Citizenship will be used. Meanwhile, the third section of the project will address a more in-depth look in some of the elements and stages of Mirvins and Googins’ Stages of Corporate Citizenship vis-a-vis Balfour Beatty Plc. Finally, the fourth part will be the limitations and conclusion of the study. In the end, it is the intention of the study to gain a better understanding of CSR by looking into the CSR of Balfour Beatty Plc. CSR and Balfour Beatty: A Demonstration of Corporate Citizenship Balfour Beatty PLC is a British construction, engineering,

Apple Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Apple - Essay Example This form of expansion would include setting up a manufacturing base for sourcing products to the Asia pacific region and USA. Porter’s Diamond Model Michel Porter’s diamond model is used to analyze the aspect of success of firms in a particular international market (refer annexure 2). The dimensions of this model include the following aspects (Klug, 2006, p.14). Factor Conditions Apple with its talented pool of resources and innovative approach can easily use the talented pool of resources available in China. China offers a ready supply of skilled labor force at cheap rates that can help the company to manufacture products at very low prices. Demand Conditions China is the largest populated nation of the world and is also witnessing high growth in its economy. According to the CIA the GDP of the nation in terms of purchasing power parity is about 10.09 trillion US dollars as of 2010. Along with this the growing Western influence has also affected the consumer behavior of the Chinese consumers making it a market with huge potential for Apple to exploit (CIA, 2011). Related and Supporting Industries The presence of suppliers and a close co-ordination helps generate competitive advantage for the organization. Apple has been known to have a cordial approach in its relationship with the suppliers and also shares an innovative approach in research and development that can be very well replicated in China to generate competitive advantage. Strategy, Rivalry and Structure The industry segment catered by Apple is highly competitive with a large number of firms competing against each other in the market. The Chinese market is also categorized by the presence of fake and pirated goods. Apple with its innovative and high quality product offering can easily fill this gap that arises between the consumer demands and the product offering and generate competitive advantage. CAGE Analysis CAGE analysis is often used by organizations to evaluate new markets and na tions by firm while expanding internationally. CAGE stands for cultural, administrative, geographic and economic distance (Sethna, 2008, p.25-28). CAGE analysis is often used by organizations to evaluate new markets and nations by firm while expanding internationally. CAGE stands for cultural, administrative, geographic and economic distance (Sethna, 2008, p.25-28). Cultural Cultural factors are very important in case of international expansion as it helps in generating a better connect with the customers. Hofstede’s proposed five dimensions that can be used to analyse the cultural aspects namely, power distance index, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and long term orientation. In these aspects China has been ranked 118 in the world and has the highest rank in Asia (refer annexure 3). This shows high values for culture and hence implies that Apple must follow a ‘glocalised’ approach in its expansion into China. Administrative China has autocratic governance and has strict laws governing the nation. The nation however has opened up its economy and is keen on getting foreign investors in the nation as a part of its liberalisation program. China however still maintains a cautious outlook towards foreign companies and tries to protect its domestic industries. Geographic

Theory Of Personality Development Essay Example for Free

Theory Of Personality Development Essay Introduction Personality development according to famous theorist Monique Laberge is the development of the organized pattern of behavior and attitudes that make a person distinctive. It includes the development of beliefs, moods an behavior that differentiate among the people. These unique attributes may result from a person’s unique experiences or because of his experiences shared with others. The combined effect of heredity and environment causes these attributes (Sturt Mary, 1999). Identical twins brought up together are more likely to show similar patterns of behavior than the identical twins reared apart. (Environment) However even twins reared apart are more similar than siblings who are not twins. (Heredity) Early Work by Sigmund Freud The best known theory of personality development developed from the works of Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis. Freud believed that personality has three basic components:- the id, the ego and the super-ego. Libido is the fundamental energy that provides the psychic energy for the achievements of goals. According to Freud sex and aggression are the only two drives and everything we do is motivated by one of them (Sturt Mary, 1999). Sex, also called Eros or life force drives people to live , prosper and produce offspring Aggression, also called Thantos or death force, stresses on the need to stay alive and to stave off threats to our existence. Id is the devil on your shoulder. Super-ego is the angel on your shoulder Ego has to maintain a healthy balance between the two which it does with the help of defense mechanisms namely: denial, displacement, Intellectualization, projection, rationalization , reaction formation, regression, repression, sublimation and suppression. Freud proposed that development of personality advanced through psycho-sexual   stages.:- the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the period of latency and genital stage The genital stage is reached through the onset of adolescence. This is the final stage of development. Libidinal energies are re-aroused and the individual attempts to achieve adult sexuality. But if there have been difficulties in the earlier stages, the giving and receiving of adult love may be difficult or impossible to achieve (Sturt Mary, 1999). Carl Jung Theory of Personality Development After Freud several other theories were developed by his associates or later psychologists. They are often referred to as Neo-Freudian theorists and prominent among them are Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Eric Eriksson. Carl Jung differed with Freud in many aspects. Jung gave more importance to current events rather than to childhood experiences. In his opinion social motives are far more important than sexual drives. His Analytic Theory also emphasized on spiritual needs and thoughts of future. Jung also differed with Freud in the conception of the Unconscious(Sturt Mary, 1999). Carl Jung focused on understanding the psyche of an individual through the dreams, mythology, religion, arts and philosophy. Carl Jung is credited to be the pioneer of four psychological concepts in personality development, which are widely taught in universities today(Sturt Mary, 1999). The Archetype The collective Unconscious The Complex Individuation The Archetype The hero archetype was first described by Carl Jung and it straight away originated from his understanding of various cultures. According to Jung each culture have heroes – those who have extra-ordinary powers to do extraordinary tasks(Sturt Mary, 1999). He further elucidated on it by explaining an individuals’ urge to be larger than life and he finds rest in those heroes archetype. It is no surprises that after these revelation, ‘Super Man’ one of the biggest comic of all time published. The comic took clue from Jung study and captivated the hearts and minds of people from all cultures. The Collective Unconscious The collective unconscious is one of the first things which led the differences between Freud and Jung. Unlike Freud, Jung believed that unconscious is more complex than just sexual motivations and aggression(Sturt Mary, 1999). As per Jung there are fears, anxieties etc which are common across cultures and they hugely influence the making of a personality. The Complex The complex self is best defined by Jung as the suppressed or repressed aspect of an individual’s conscious self. He categorized them into Constructive and Destructive types(Sturt Mary, 1999) – Constructive – It represents hidden positive affect or influence on an individual. Destructive – It represents the side an individual doesn’t want to recognize in himself. Individuation Jung explained Individuation as a process of growth and maturation which comes in an individual during the course of life. It is the process where he can detach from the inner self and find meaning in life. Process of Personality Development as per Carl Jung According to Jung each individual have an introvert and extrovert side and which side dominates the other influences the personality of an individual. As per Jung the conscious side helps an individual to adapt and orient while the unconscious self help in reacting or behaving in the particular manner. Jung categorized the behavior into four categories – sensation, thinking, feeling and intuition(Sturt Mary, 1999). He further defined that feeling and thinking is rational and comes with conscious side while intuition and sensation are irrational and originates from the unconscious. Bibliography STURT, MARY; OAKDEN, E C (1999) Modern Psychology and Education : A Text-Book of Psychology for Students in Training Colleges and Adult Evening Classes. Published by Routlege ISBN: 0-415-21009-7

Danny Santiagos Famous All Over Town :: Famous All Over Town

Danny Santiago's Famous All Over Town  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      When I was little I remember driving across country, going to Florida, and past neighborhoods that were anything but mine. They had old houses that looked like they were going to fall down any minute, real trashy looking. In Colorado, my house was nice and always kept up. I sat in the car wondering what kind of people lived in those run down places and what they were like. The answers came to me years later when I read the book, Famous All Over Town, by Danny Santiago. The main character, Chato, is a young Hispanic boy living in a neighborhood like the ones I saw when I was little. After reading the book, although I never thought I would have anything in common with people who lived like that, I learned that Chato and I have do have similarities, but we have more differences. There aren't very many similarities between Chato and I, but there is one, and it's a big one. We both have families that love us. Lena, Chato's sister takes care of him after he gets home from the hospital. Then he begins to think about his family and how glad he is to be home. "Lena loved me, my mom loved me, and my father loved me, it seemed" (45). All of Chato's family loves him and he loves being with them. In my house, you would find the same kind of environment and I can relate to some of Chato's family life. However, Chato's family is not always nice to him. His family has many problems, such as everyone keeping secrets from each other and everyone lieing to each other. For example, Chato's father is having an affair and everyone knows about it, but they all keep it from Chato. When he finds out he is very mad at himself and things he is dumb for not knowing, while everyone else does. "She knew, they knew, the whole damn town knew, except only dumb, stupid me" (l46). In my fa mily, however, everyone is honest and you would never see anyone keeping something that important from the others. Another example of how Chato's family is different, is shown when Chato is having a bellyache and his father things that he is faking it. He tells him, "Shut-up, crybaby-coward" (26). His father is not being very nice to him because he is sick.

College Education vs. Technical Training Essay -- Argumentative Persua

College Education vs. Technical Training A few years ago, the DeVry technical institute released a commercial that compared two brothers in their educational pursuits. The younger brother started school at DeVry and graduated in two years. The older brother had chosen college and was still stuck in his dorm room studying history while his younger brother worked on the future. The question this commercial presented was obvious, why waste all that time in a university learning trivial facts which don’t apply to the real world when you can bypass it and still learn an important skill. That is an interesting question to consider, especially in such a hi-tech world. But is job training all one needs to know to be successful? What are the advantages of a college degree versus a technical degree? I would like to consider some advantages a college graduate might have in the areas of employment, family and community. For this paper, I would like to define a university education as that which enables students to expand their communication skills, evaluate problems using critical thinking, a general broadening of cultural awareness and a knowledge of history in relation to how their surrounding world came to be. A university education also provides students with a chance to appreciate and understand the arts, ponder philosophical questions and discuss the significance of works of literature. Students learn the relationship of science to the body, the Earth, the universe and role mathematics plays in all of this. Every student that obtains a university degree should be able to lay claim to a little knowledge in all of these areas. The definition of a technical education as given by DeVry reads, â€Å"To provide high-quality career-oriente... ...he United States, including the fundamental relationships of the federal system. Courses in economics study contemporary economic problems such as inflation, unemployment, poverty, and pollution. These courses help students better understand their place in the community and how to change their situation. They are less likely to feel helpless about their problems they facing Americans. College gives students the means to teach themselves long after their formal education is complete. At best a college education teaches us to think outside of the box. It gives us an appreciation of others differences, instead of a fear of it. College graduates should be able to digest the information around them and formulate their own opinion. Students should come away from their education with the ability to instigate change in themselves, their family, and their community.

Blue-Collar Brilliance Essay

Blue collar workers are the backbone of America. In the article, â€Å"Blue-Collar Brilliance†, author Mike Rose emphasizes his belief that blue collar jobs should not be viewed as mindless tasks, but rather should be acknowledged for the amount of skills and intelligence these tasks truly require. What the author essentially means is that blue collar workers acquire knowledge, intuition, and skills from the social dynamics of their workplace itself. Rose argues that we often make mistakes by judging people based on their level of education and thereby not giving them the recognition they deserve. Through observation, trial and error, and often physical and verbal assistance from others, blue collar workers develop their skills. â€Å"Blue-Collar Brilliance† is an article that makes us realize that formal education does not always measure the level of intelligence of a person. Blue Collar jobs require just as much intelligence as jobs that require formal academic credentials (e.g. a College Diploma) and hence should be recognized for their work. In the article, â€Å"Blue-Collar Brilliance†, Mike Rose disagrees with the assumption that â€Å"Intelligence is closely associated with formal education† (Mike, 247). Although the aforesaid assumption has been absorbed throughout history, Rose believes that more readings occur in the blue collar workplace than what society gives credit for. I agree with Mike Rose when he argues that although society often defines one’s IQ based on school grades, blue-collar workers develop intelligence and skills in workplace through proper planning, problem solving, and social interactions. Most blue collar Mehreen jobs are constantly faced with new problems every day, in the midst of grueling schedules, that demand instant resolution. Blue collar workers acquire intelligence, wisdom, and skills from the technological and social dynamics of their workplace. In the article, Mike Rose supports this view  by describing what he learned as a child observing how his mother was shaping her identity as a waitress in the coffee and family shops. Since then he came to realize that his mother’s work required both mental and physical strengths. In the midst of grueling work schedule, Mike’s mother learned not only how to work fast but smart as well. She acquired her knowledge and skills by studying human behavior. In her busy work schedules, she memorized tactfully who ordered what by devising mental strategies. Besides working as a waitress, Mike’s mother constantly tried to understand the psychology of her customers in an effort to provide customized services to meet their specific needs. Her experience reminds me of the time when I worked as a sales representative at an AT&T retail store in Alabama. The thought processes involved in my work was very similar to the work that Mike’s mother did. Like Mike’s mom, I devised my own mental strategy to respond to customer queries and concerns more effectively in order to satisfy demands. I often made decisions on whether or not to sell a product by observing, understanding, and interpreting the behavior of the customers. In the article, the author emphasizes that most blue color jobs require significant amount of judgment and reading than white color jobs. The author supports his views by saying, â€Å"Carpenters have an eye for length, line, and angle; mechanics troubleshoot by listening; hair stylists are attuned to shape, texture, and motion† (Mike, 251). Mike argues that the use of a tool requires motor skills to perform, because a person needs to know the main purpose of the  tool for a particular situation. By working with a tool for a long period of time, the worker becomes attuned to every aspects of the environment that enhances knowledge and perception of the job at hand. As a result, workers get more trained and disciplined. In the routine tasks of most blue collar jobs, reading is integral to workers to understand production quotas, and learn how to use an instrument. Although formal education is important, but learning how to use those skills is more important. I agree with Mike Rose’s perception of how modern day society is often reluctant to bestow upon the blue collar workers the recognition they deserve. However, I’m a strong proponent of availing every human being, regardless of their race, gender, or social status, the access to a decent education. I support the  author’s claim that people should not be judged only by the kind of work they do. While most white collar workers have higher levels of education as compared to their blue collar counterparts, they may not necessarily be more intelligent or savvy at the jobs they perform on a day to day basis. Mike is not saying that education is not important but he argues that many of the tools to become successful in the work place become routine with observation and trial and error. Education is still a very important tool but learning how to manipulate that tool and use the skills learned in the working environment to make plans and solve problems is more crucial for success. Although formal education is important, the skills and wisdom we acquire through direct experience in life are the true indicators of how intelligent a person is. Blue collar workers should be acknowledged for the work they do because they demand the same level of intelligence as jobs that require academic credentials. They perform routine tasks in the midst of difficult work schedules by reading and making proper judgment, which affects the ways they   perform their work. Regardless of the fact that most white collar workers are more educated as compared to their blue collar counterparts, they are not necessarily more intelligent at the jobs they perform. The skills which we develop through formal education are important tools but knowing how to apply those tools in real life circumstance are more important. Through social interactions, observations, and trial and error, blue collar workers learn how to successfully accomplish their tasks every day. Works Cited Graff, Gerald, Cathy Birkenstein, and Russel K. Durst. â€Å"Blue Collar Brilliance.† â€Å"They Say/I Say†: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing: With Readings. 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012. Print.

Most Opposition to Abortion Relies Essay

A Defense of Abortion Author(s): Judith Jarvis Thomson Source: Philosophy and Public Affairs, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Autumn, 1971), pp. 47-66 Published by: Blackwell Publishing Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/2265091 Accessed: 10/01/2010 00:54 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor. org. Blackwell Publishing is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Philosophy and Public Affairs. http://www. jstor. org JUDITH JARVISTHOMSON A Defense of Abortion’ Most opposition to abortion relies on the premise that the fetus is a human being, a person, from the moment of conception. The premise is argued for, but, as I think, not well. Take, for example, the most common argument. We are asked to notice that the development of a human being from conception through birth into childhood is continuous; then it is said that to draw a line, to choose a point in this development and say â€Å"before this point the thing is not a person, after this point it is a person† is to make an arbitrary choice, a choice for which in the nature of things no good reason can be given. It is concluded that the fetus is, or anyway that we had better say it is, a person from the moment of conception. But this conclusion does not follow. Similar things might be said about the development of an acorn into an oak tree, and it does not follow that acorns are oak trees, or that we had better say they are. Arguments of this form are sometimes called â€Å"slippery slope arguments†-the phrase is perhaps self-explanatory-and it is dismaying that opponents of abortion rely on them so heavily and uncritically. I am inclined to agree, however, that the prospects for â€Å"drawing a line† in the development of the fetus look dim. I am inclined to think also that we shall probably have to agree that the fetus has already become a human person well before birth. Indeed, it comes as a surprise when one first learns how early in its life it begins to acquire human characteristics. By the tenth week, for example, it already has i. I am very much indebted to James Thomson for discussion, criticism, and many helpful suggestions. 48 Philosophy ; Public Affairs a face, arms and legs, fingers and toes; it has internal organs, and brain activity is detectable. 2 On the other hand, I think that the premise is false, that the fetus is not a person from the moment of conception. A newly fertilized ovum, a newly implanted clump of cells, is no more a person than an acorn is an oak tree. But I shall not discuss any of this. For it seems to me to be of great interest to ask what happens if, for the sake of argument, we allow the premise. How, precisely, are we supposed to get from there to the conclusion that abortion is morally impermissible? Opponents of abortion commonly spend most of their time establishing that the fetus is a person, and hardly any time explaining the step from there to the impermissibility of abortion. Perhaps they think the step too simple and obvious to require much comment. Or perhaps instead they are simply being economical in argument. Many of those who defend abortion rely on the premise that the fetus is not a person, but only a bit of tissue that will become a person at birth; and why pay out more arguments than you have to? Whatever the explanation, I suggest that the step they take is neither easy nor obvious, that it calls for closer examination than it is commonly given, and that when we do give it this closer examination we shall feel inclined to reject it. I propose, then, that we grant that the fetus is a person. from the moment of conception. How does the argument go from here? Something like this, I take it. Every person has a right to life. So the fetus has a right to life. No doubt the mother has a right to decide what shall happen in and to her body; everyone would grant that. But surely a person’s right to life is stronger and more stringent than the mother’s right to decide what happens in and to her body, and so outweighs it. So the fetus may not be killed; an abortion may not be performed. It sounds plausible. But now let me ask you to imagine this. You wake up in the morning and find yourself back to back in bed with an unconscious violinist. A famous unconscious violinist. He has been found to have a fatal kidney ailment, and the Society of Music Lovers 2. Daniel Callahan, Abortion: Law, Choice and Morality (New York, 1970), p. 373. This book gives a fascinating survey of the available information on abortion. The Jewish tradition is surveyed in David M. Feldman, Birth Control in Jewish Law (New York, i968), Part 5, the Catholic tradition in John T. Noonan, Jr. , â€Å"An Almost Absolute Value in History,† in The Morality of Abortion, ed. John T. Noonan, Jr. (Cambridge, Mass. , 1970). 49 A Defense of Abortion has canvassed all the available medical records and found that you alone have the right blood type to help. They have therefore kidnapped you, and last night the violinist’s circulatory system was plugged into yours, so that your kidneys can be used to extract poisons from his blood as well as your own. The director of the hospital now tells you, â€Å"Look, we’re sorry the Society of Music Lovers did this to you-we would never have permitted it if we had known. But still, they did it, and the violinist now is plugged into you. To unplug you would be to kill him. But never mind, it’s only for nine months. By then he will have recovered from his ailment, and can safely be unplugged from you. † Is it morally incumbent on you to accede to this situation? No doubt it would be very nice of you if you did, a great kindness. But do you have to accede to it? What if it were not nine months, but nine years? Or longer still? What if the director of the hospital says, â€Å"Tough luck, I agree, but you’ve now got to stay in bed, with the violinist plugged into you, for the rest of your life. Because remember this. All persons have a right to life, and violinists are persons. Granted you have a right to decide what happens in and to your body, but a person’s right to life outweighs your right to decide what happens in and to your body. So you cannot ever be unplugged from him. † I imagine you would regard this as outrageous, which suggests that something really is wrong with that plausible-sounding argument I mentioned a moment ago. In this case, of course, you were kidnapped; you didn’t volunteer for the operation that plugged the violinist into your kidneys. Can those who oppose abortion on the ground I mentioned make an exception for a pregnancy due to rape? Certainly. They can say that persons have a right to life only if they didn’t come into existence because of rape; or they can say that all persons have a right to life, but that some have less of a right to life than others, in particular, that those who came into existence because of rape have less. But these statements have a rather unpleasant sound. Surely the question of whether you have a right to life at all, or how much of it you have, shouldn’t turn on the question of whether or not you are the product of a rape. And in fact the people who oppose abortion on the ground I mentioned do not make this distinction, and hence do not make an exception in case of rape. 50 Philosophy ; Public Affairs Nor do they make an exception for a case in which the mother has to spend the nine months of her pregnancy in bed. They would agree that would be a great pity, and hard on the mother; but all the same, all persons have a right to ife, the fetus is a person, and so on. I suspect, in fact, that they would not make an exception for a case in which, miraculously enough, the pregnancy went on for nine years, or even the rest of the mother’s life. Some won’t even make an exception for a case in which continuation of the pregnancy is likely to shorten the mother’s life; they regard abortion as impermissible even to save the mother’s life. Such cases are nowadays very rare, and many opponents of abortion do not accept this extreme view. Moreover, in killing the child, one would be killing an innocent person, for the child has committed no crime, and is not aiming at his mother’s death. And then there are a variety of ways in which this 3. The term â€Å"direct† in the arguments I refer to is a technical one. Roughly, what is meant by â€Å"direct killing† is either killing as an end in itself, or killing as a means to some end, for example, the end of saving someone else’s life. See note 6, below, for an example of its use. 51 A Defense of Abortion might be continued. i) But as directly killing an innocent person is always and absolutely impermissible, an abortion may not be performed. Or, (2) as directly killing an innocent person is murder, and murder is always and absolutely impermissible, an abortion may not be performed. Because unplugging you would be directly killing an innocent violinist, and that’s murder, and that’s impermissible. † If anything in the world is true, it is that you do not commit murder, you do not do what is impermissible, if you reach around to your back and unplug yourself from that violinist to save your life. The main focus of attention in writings on abortion has been on what a third party may or may not do in answer to a request from a woman for an abortion. This is in a way understandable. Things being as they are, there isn’t much a woman can safely do to abort herself. So the question asked is what a third party may do, and what the mother may do, if it is mentioned at all, is deduced, almost as an afterthought, from what it is concluded that third parties may do. But it seems to me that to treat the matter in this way is to refuse to grant to the mother that very status of person which is so firmly insisted on for the fetus. For we cannot simply read off what a person may do from what a third party may do. Suppose you find yourself trapped in a tiny house with a growing child. I mean a very tiny house, and a rapidly growing child-you are already up against the wall f the house and in a few minutes you’ll be crushed to death. The child on the other hand won’t be crushed to death; if nothing is done to stop him from growing he’ll be hurt, but in the end he’ll simply burst open the house and walk out a free man. Now I could well understand it if a bystander were to say, â€Å"There’s nothing we can do for you. We c annot choose between your life and his, we cannot be the ones to decide who is to live, we cannot intervene. † But it cannot be concluded that you too can do nothing, that you cannot attack it to save your life. However innocent the child may be, you do not have to wait passively while it crushes you to death. Perhaps a pregnant woman is vaguely felt to have the status of house, to which we don’t allow the 53 A Defense of Abortion right of self-defense. But if the woman houses the child, it should be remembered that she is a person who houses it. 1 should perhaps stop to say explicitly that I am not claiming that people have a right to do anything whatever to save their lives. I think, rather, that there are drastic limits to the right of self-defense. If someone threatens you with death unless you torture someone else to death, I think you have not the right, even to save your life, to do so. But the case under consideration here is very different. In our case there are only two people involved, one whose life is threatened, and one who threatens it. Both are innocent: the one who is threatened is not threatened because of any fault, the one who threatens does not threaten because of any fault. For this reason we may feel that we bystanders cannot intervene. But the person threatened can. In sum, a woman surely can defend her life against the threat to it posed by the unborn child, even if doing so involves its death. And this shows not merely that the theses in (i) through (4) are false; it shows also that the extreme view of abortion is false, and so we need not canvass any other possible ways of arriving at it from the argument I mentioned at the outset. 2. The extreme view could of course be weakened to say that while abortion is permissible to save the mother’s life, it may not be performed by a third party, but only by the mother herself. But this cannot be right either. For what we have to keep in mind is that the mother and the unborn child are not like two tenants in a small house which has, by an unfortunate mistake, been rented to both: the mother owns the house. The fact that she does adds to the offensiveness of deducing that the mother can do nothing from the supposition that third parties can do nothing. But it does more than this: it casts a bright light on the supposition that third parties can do nothing. Certainly it lets us see that a third party who says â€Å"I cannot choose between you† is fooling himself if he thinks this is impartiality. If Jones has found and fastened on a certain coat, which he needs to keep him from freezing, but which Smith also needs to keep him from freezing, then it is not impartiality that says â€Å"I cannot choose between you† when Smith owns the coat. Women have said again and again â€Å"This body is my body! † and they have reason to feel angry, reason to feel that it has been like shouting into the wind. Smith, after all, is 54 Philosophy & Public Affairs hardly likely to bless us if we say to him, â€Å"Of course it’s your coat, anybody would grant that it is. But no one may choose between you and Jones who is to have it.We should really ask what it is that says â€Å"no one may choose† in the face of the fact that the body that houses the child is the mother’s body. It may be simply a failure to appreciate this fact. But it may be something more interesting, namely the sense that one has a right to refuse to lay hands on people, even where it would be just and fair to do so, even where justice seems to require that somebody do so. Thus justice might call for somebody to get Smith’s coat back from Jones, and yet you have a right to refuse to be the one to lay hands on Jones, a right to refuse to do physical violence to him. This, I think, must be granted. But then what should be said is not â€Å"no one may choose,† but only â€Å"I cannot choose,† and indeed not even this, but â€Å"I will not act,† leaving it open that somebody else can or should, and in particular that anyone in a position of authority, with the job of securing people’s rights, both can and should. So this is no difficulty. I have not been arguing that any given third party must accede to the mother’s request that he perform an abortion to save her life, but only that he may. I suppose that in some views of human life the mother’s body is only on loan to her, the loan not being one which gives her any prior claim to it. One who held this view might well think it impartiality to say â€Å"I cannot choose. † But I shall simply ignore this possibility. My own view is that if a human being has any just, prior claim to anything at all, he has a just, prior claim to his own body. And perhaps this needn’t be argued for here anyway, since, as I mentioned, the arguments against abortion we are looking at do grant that the woman has a right to decide what happens in and to her body. But although they do grant it, I have tried to show that they do not take seriously what is done in granting it. I suggest the same thing will reappear even more clearly when we turn away from cases in which the mother’s life is at stake, and attend, as I propose we now do, to the vastly more common cases in which a woman wants an abortion for some less weighty reason than preserving her own life. 3. Where the mother’s life is not at stake, the argument I mentioned at the outset seems to have a much stronger pull. â€Å"Everyone 55 A Defense of Abortion as a right to life, so the unborn person has a right to life. † And isn’t the child’s right to life weightier than anything other than the mother’s own right to life, which she might put forward as ground for an abortion? This argument treats the right to life as if it were unproblematic. It is not, and this seems to me to be precisely the source of the mistake. For we should now, at long last , ask what it comes to, to have a right to life. In some views having a right to life includes having a right to be given at least the bare minimum one needs for continued life. But suppose that what in fact is the bare minimum a man needs for continued life is something he has no right at all to be given? If I am sick unto death, and the only thing that will save my life is the touch of Henry Fonda’s cool hand on my fevered brow, then all the same, I have no right to be given the touch of Henry Fonda’s cool hand on my fevered brow. It would be frightfully nice of him to fly in from the West Coast to provide it. It would be less nice, though no doubt well meant, if my friends flew out to the West Coast and carried Henry Fonda back with them. But I have no right at all against anybody that he should do this for me. Or again, to return to the story I told earlier, the fact that for continued life that violinist needs the continued use of your kidneys does not establish that he has a right to be given the continued use of your kidneys. He certainly has no right against you that you should give him continued use of your kidneys. For nobody has any right to use your kidneys unless you give him such a right; and nobody has the right against you that you shall give him this right-if you do allow him to go on using your kidneys, this is a kindness on your part, and not something he can claim from you as his due. Nor has he any right against anybody else that they should give him continued use of your kidneys. Certainly he had no right against the Society of Music Lovers that they should plug him into you in the first place. And if you now start to unplug yourself, having learned that you will otherwise have to spend nine years in bed with him, there is nobody in the world who must try to prevent you, in order to see to it that he is given something he has a right to be given. Some people are rather stricter about the right to life. In their view, it does not include the right to be given anything, but amounts to, 56 Philosophy & Public Affairs and only to, the right not to be killed by anybody. But here a related difficulty arises. If everybody is to refrain from killing that violinist, then everybody must refrain from doing a great many different sorts of things. Everybody must refrain from slitting his throat, everybody must refrain from shooting him-and everybody must refrain from unplugging you from him. But does he have a right against everybody that they shall refrain from unplugging you from him? To refrain from doing this is to allow him to continue to use your kidneys. It could be argued that he has a right against us that we should allow him to continue to use your kidneys. That is, while he had no right against us that we should give him the use of your kidneys, it might be argued that he anyway has a right against us that we shall not now intervene and deprive him of the use of your kidneys. I shall come back to third-party interventions later. But certainly the violinist has no right against you that you shall allow him to continue to use your kidneys. As I said, if you do allow him to use them, it is a kindness on your part, and not something you owe him. The difficulty I point to here is not peculiar to the right to life. It reappears in connection with all the other natural rights; and it is something which an adequate account of rights must deal with. For present purposes it is enough just to draw attention to it. But I would stress that I am not arguing that people do not have a right to lifequite to the contrary, it seems to me that the primary control we must place on the acceptability of an account of rights is that it should turn out in that account to be a truth that all persons have a right to life. I am arguing only that having a right to life does not guarantee having either a right to be given the use of or a right to be allowed continued use of another person’s body-even if one needs it for life itself. So the right to life will not serve the opponents of abortion in the very simple and clear way in which they seem to have thought it would. 4. There is another way to bring out the difficulty. In the most ordinary sort of case, to deprive someone of what he has a right to is to treat him unjustly. Suppose a boy and his small brother are jointly given a box of chocolates for Christmas. If the older boy takes the box and refuses to give his brother any of the chocolates, he is unjust to -him, for the brother has been given a right to half of them. But 57 A Defense of Abortion uppose that, having learned that otherwise it means nine years in bed with that violinist, you unplug yourself from him. You surely are not being unjust to him, for you gave him no right to use your kidneys, and no one else can have given him any such right. But we have to notice that in unplugging yourself, you are killing him; and violinists, like everybody else, have a right to life, and thus in the view we wer e considering just now, the right not to be killed. So here you do what he supposedly has a right you shall not do, but you do not act unjustly to him in doing it. The emendation which may be made at this point is this: the right to life consists not in the right not to be killed, but rather in the right not to be killed unjustly. This runs a risk of circularity, but never mind: it would enable us to square the fact that the violinist has a right to life with the fact that you do not act unjustly toward him in unplugging yourself, thereby killing him. For if you do not kill him unjustly, you do not violate his right to life, and so it is no wonder you do him no injustice. But if this emendation is accepted, the gap in the argument against abortion stares us plainly in the face: it is by no means enough to show that the fetus is a person, and to remind us that all persons have a right to life-we need to be shown also that killing the fetus violates its right to life, i. e. , that abortion is unjust killing. And is it? I suppose we may take it as a datum that in a case of pregnancy due to rape the mother has not given the unborn person a right to the use of her body for food and shelter. Indeed, in what pregnancy could it be supposed that the mother has given the unborn person such a right? It is not as if there were unborn persons drifting about the world, to whom a woman who wants a child says â€Å"I invite you in. † But it might be argued that there are other ways one can have acquired a right to the use of another person’s body than by having been invited to use it by that person. Suppose a woman voluntarily indulges in intercourse, knowing of the chance it will issue in pregnancy, and then she does become pregnant; is she not in part responsible for the presence, in fact the very existence, of the unborn person inside her? No doubt she did not invite it in. But doesn’t her partial responsibility for its being there itself give it a right to the use of her 58 Philosophy ; Public Affairs body? 7 If so, then her aborting it would be more like the boy’s taking away the chocolates, and less like your unplugging yourself from the violinist-doing so would be depriving it of what it does have a right to, and thus would be doing it an injustice. And then, too, it might be asked whether or not she can kill it even to save her own life: If she voluntarily called it into existence, how can she now kill it, even in self-defense? The first thing to be said about this is that it is something new. Opponents of abortion have been so concerned to make out the independence of the fetus, in order to establish that it has a right to life, just as its mother does, that they have tended to overlook the possible support they might gain from making out that the fetus is dependent on the mother, in order to establish that she has a special kind of responsibility for it, a responsibility that gives it rights against her which are not possessed by any independent person-such as an ailing violinist who is a stranger to her. On the other hand, this argument would give the unborn person a right to its mother’s body only if her pregnancy resulted from a voluntary act, undertaken in full knowledge of the chance a pregnancy might result from it. It would leave out entirely the unborn person whose existence is due to rape. Pending the availability of some further argument, then, we would be left with the conclusion that unborn persons whose existence is due to rape have no right to the use of their mothers’ bodies, and thus that aborting them is not depriving them of anything they have a right to and hence is not unjust killing. And we should also notice that it is not at all plain that this argument really does go even as far as it purports to. For there are cases and cases, and the details make a difference. If the room is stuffy, and I therefore open a window to air it, and a burglar climbs in, it would be absurd to say,†Ah, now he can stay, she’s given him a right to the use of her house-for she is partially responsible for his presence there, having voluntarily done what enabled him to get in, in full knowledge that there are such things as burglars, and that burglars 7. The need for a discussion of this argument was brought home to me by members of the Society for Ethical and Legal Philosophy, to whom this paper was originally presented. 59 A Defense of Abortion burgle. † It would be still more absurd to say this if I had had bars installed outside my windows, precisely to prevent burglars from getting in, and a burglar got in only because of a defect in the bars. It remains equally absurd if we imagine it is not a burglar who climbs in, but an innocent person who blunders or falls in. Again, suppose it were like this: people-seeds drift about in the air like pollen, and if you open your windows, one may drift in and take root in your carpets or upholstery. You don’t want children, so you fix up your windows with fine mesh screens, the very best you can buy. As can happen, however, and on very, very rare occasions does happen, one of the screens is defective; and a seed drifts in and takes root. Does the person-plant who now develops have a right to the use of your house? Surely not-despite the fact that you voluntarily opened your windows, you knowingly kept carpets and upholstered furniture, and you knew that screens were sometimes defective. Someone may argue that you are responsible for its rooting, that it does have a right to your house, because after all you could have lived out your life with bare floors and furniture, or with sealed windows and doors. But this won’t do-for by the same token anyone can avoid a pregnancy due to rape by having a hysterectomy, or anyway by never leaving home without a (reliable!army. It seems to me that the argument we are looking at can establish at most that there are some cases in which the unborn person has a right to the use of its mother’s body, and therefore some cases in which abortion is unjust killing. There is room for much discussion and argument as to precisely which, if any. But I think we should sidestep this issue and leave it open, for at any rate the argument certainly does not est ablish that all abortion is unjust killing. 5. There is room for yet another argument here, however. We surely must all grant that there may be cases in which it would be morally indecent to detach a person from your body at the cost of his life. Suppose you learn that what the violinist needs is not nine years of your life, but only one hour: all you need do to save his life is to spend one hour in that bed with him. Suppose also that letting him use your kidneys for that one hour would not affect your health in the slightest. Admittedly you were kidnapped. Admittedly you did not give 6o Philosophy & Public Affairs anyone permission to plug him into you. Nevertheless it seems to me plain you ought to allow him to use your kidneys for that hour-it would be indecent to refuse. Again, suppose pregnancy lasted only an hour, and constituted no threat to life or health. And suppose that a woman becomes pregnant as a result of rape. Admittedly she did not voluntarily do anything to bring about the existence of a child. Admittedly she did nothing at all which would give the unborn person a right to the use of her body. All the same it might well be said, as in the newly emended violinist story, that she ought to allow it to remain for that hour-that it would be indecent in her to refuse. Now some people are inclined to use the term â€Å"right†in such a way that it follows from the fact that you ought to allow a person to use your body for the hour he needs, that he has a right to use your body for the hour he needs, even though he has not been given that right by any person or act. They may say that it follows also that if you refuse, you act unjustly toward him. This use of the term is perhaps so common that it cannot be called wrong; nevertheless it seems to me to be an unfortunate loosening of what we would do better to keep a tight rein on. Suppose that box of chocolates I mentioned earlier had not been given to both boys jointly, but was given only to the older boy. There he sits, stolidly eating his way through the box, his small brother watching enviously. Here we are likely to say â€Å"Youought not to be so mean. You ought to give your brother some of those chocolates. † My own view is that it just does not follow from the truth of this that the brother has any right to any of the chocolates. If the boy refuses to give his brother any, he is greedy, stingy, callous-but not unjust. I suppose that the people I have in mind will say it does follow that the brother has a right to some of the chocolates, and thus that the boy does act unjustly if he refuses to give his brother any. But the effect of saying this is to obscure what we should keep distinct, namely the difference between the boy’s refusal in this case and the boy’s refusal in the earlier case, in which the box was given to both boys jointly, and in which the small brother thus had what was from any point of view clear title to half. A further objection to so using the term â€Å"right†that from the fact that A ought to do a thing for B, it follows that B has a right against A 6I A Defense of Abortion that A do it for him, is that it is going to make the question of whether or not a man has a right to a thing turn on how easy it is to provide him with it; and this seems not merely unfortunate, but morally unacceptable. Take the case of Henry Fonda again. I said earlier that I had no right to the touch of his cool hand on my fevered brow, even though I needed it to save my life. I said it would be frightfully nice of him to fly in from the West Coast to provide me with it, but that I had no right against him that he should do so. But suppose he isn’t on the West Coast. Suppose he has only to walk across the room, place a hand briefly on my brow-and lo, my life is saved. Then surely he ought to do it, it would be indecent to refuse. Is it to be said â€Å"Ah, well, it follows that in this case she has a right to the touch of his hand on her brow, and so it would be an injustice in him to refuse†? So that I have a right to it when it is easy for him to provide it, though no right when it’s hard? It’s rather a shocking idea that anyone’s rights should fade away and disappear as it gets harder and harder to accord them to him. So my own view is that even though you ought to let the violinist use your kidneys for the one hour he needs, we should not conclude that he has a right to do so-we should say that if you refuse, you are, like the boy who owns all the chocolates and will give none away, self-centered and callous, indecent in fact, but not unjust. And similarly, that even supposing a case in which a woman pregnant due to rape ought to allow the unborn person to use her body for the hour he needs, we should not conclude that he has a right to do so; we should conclude that she is self-centered, callous, indecent, but not unjust, if she refuses. The complaints are no less grave; they are just different. However, there is no need to insist on this point. If anyone does wish to deduce â€Å"he has a ight† from â€Å"you ought,† then all the same he must surely grant that there are cases in which it is not morally required of you that you allow that violinist to use your kidneys, and in which he does not have a right to use them, and in which you do not do him an injustice if you refuse. And so also for mother and unborn child. Except in such cases as the unborn person has a right to demand it-and we were leaving open the possibility that there may be such cases-nobody is morally required to make large sacrifices, of health, of all other interests and concerns, of all other duties 62 Philosophy & Public Affairs and commitments, for nine years, or even for nine months, in order to keep another person alive. 6. We have in fact to distinguish between two kinds of Samaritan: the Good Samaritan and what we might call the Minimally Decent Samaritan. The story of the Good Samaritan, you will remember, goes like this: A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, which stripped him of his raiment, and wounded him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance there came down a certain priest that way; and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And likewise a Levite, when he was at the place, came and looked on him, and passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was; and when he saw him he had compassion on him. And went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow, when he departed, he took out two pence, and gave them to the host, and said unto him, â€Å"Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, when I come again, I will repay thee.(Luke I0:30-35) The Good Samaritan went out of his way, at some cost to himself, to help one in need of it. We are not told what the options were, that is, whether or not the priest and the Levite could have helped by doing less than the Good Samaritan did, but assuming they could have, then the fact they did nothing at all shows they were not even Minimally Decent Samaritans, not because they were not Samaritans, but because they w ere not even minimally decent. These things are a matter of degree, of course, but there is a difference, and it comes out perhaps most clearly in the story of Kitty Genovese, who, as you will remember, was murdered while thirtyeight people watched or listened, and did nothing at all to help her. A Good Samaritan would have rushed out to give direct assistance 63 A Defense of Abortion against the murderer. Or perhaps we had better allow that it would have been a Splendid Samaritan who did this, on the ground that it would have involved a risk of death for himself. But the thirty-eight not only did not do this, they did not even trouble to pick up a phone to call the police. Minimally Decent Samaritanism would call for doing at least that, and their not having done it was monstrous. After telling the story of the Good Samaritan, Jesus said â€Å"Go, and do thou likewise. † Perhaps he meant that we are morally required to act as the Good Samaritan did. Perhaps he was urging people to do more than is morally required of them. At all events it seems plain that it was not morally required of any of the thirty-eight that he rush out to give direct assistance at the risk of his own life, and that it is not morally required of anyone that he give long stretches of his lifenine years or nine months-to sustaining the life of a person who has no special right (we were leaving open the possibility of this) to demand it. Indeed, with one rather striking class of exceptions, no one in any country in the world is legally required to do anywhere near as much as this for anyone else.